Creatine
Summary
What is it? Creatine is a compound made from amino acids. Muscles store it as phosphocreatine and use it to remake ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the molecule that gives them energy in short, hard efforts [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry. Most studies use creatine monohydrate [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry.
Why would I need it? It is studied for sports with repeated sprints, jumps and lifts, such as soccer [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry.
Is it useful? For soccer players the evidence is very low certainty. A 2026 review of 41 studies found mixed results for sprints, power and strength, and no consistent benefit for endurance or recovery [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry. An earlier, smaller meta-analysis reported a large benefit in an all-out cycling test [2]Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Athletic Performance in Soccer Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Mielgo-Ayuso J, Calleja-Gonzalez J, Marqués-Jiménez D, et al. Nutrients, 2019, but that result came from only two small trials, and one of them was in American football players [3]Creatine supplementation during resistance training in college football athletes. Bemben MG, Bemben DA, Loftiss DD, et al. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 2001. Body weight often goes up [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry[4]Creatine supplementation protocols with or without training interventions on body composition: a GRADE-assessed systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Pashayee-Khamene F, Heidari Z, Asbaghi O, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20241 author declares ties to industry.
In adults in general, a 2024 meta-analysis of 143 trials rated the evidence for body composition as high certainty for body weight, fat-free mass and body fat percentage. Creatine raised body weight by 0.86 kg and fat-free mass by 0.82 kg compared with placebo. The change in body fat percentage was very small (-0.28 percentage points), and total fat mass did not change [4]Creatine supplementation protocols with or without training interventions on body composition: a GRADE-assessed systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Pashayee-Khamene F, Heidari Z, Asbaghi O, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20241 author declares ties to industry. See Creatine and body composition in adults: what the evidence says.
FAQ
Does creatine make soccer players faster? Not in a consistent way. Some trials found better repeated sprints than with placebo, many found no difference, and the certainty was very low [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry.
Does creatine help endurance? No consistent benefit was found in soccer players [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry[2]Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Athletic Performance in Soccer Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Mielgo-Ayuso J, Calleja-Gonzalez J, Marqués-Jiménez D, et al. Nutrients, 2019.
Will I gain weight on creatine? Often. In the soccer studies body weight rose by 0.4 to 3.6 kg where it was reported, mostly after loading [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry. Across 143 trials in all kinds of people, the average gain was 0.86 kg [4]Creatine supplementation protocols with or without training interventions on body composition: a GRADE-assessed systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Pashayee-Khamene F, Heidari Z, Asbaghi O, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20241 author declares ties to industry.
Does creatine build muscle? It adds a small amount of fat-free mass: 0.82 kg on average over placebo in 143 trials. The gain was clearer with resistance training (0.99 kg) than without exercise (0.24 kg, not significant), although the difference between these groups was not statistically significant. An earlier meta-analysis also found a gain only with resistance training [5]Influence of age, sex, and type of exercise on the efficacy of creatine supplementation on lean body mass: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Delpino FM, Figueiredo LM, Forbes SC, et al. Nutrition, 2022. Part of the gain may be water [4]Creatine supplementation protocols with or without training interventions on body composition: a GRADE-assessed systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Pashayee-Khamene F, Heidari Z, Asbaghi O, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20241 author declares ties to industry.
Does creatine burn fat? Not in a way that shows on the scale. Total fat mass did not change (+0.05 kg, 95% CI -0.24 to 0.35), and body fat percentage fell by only 0.28 percentage points [4]Creatine supplementation protocols with or without training interventions on body composition: a GRADE-assessed systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Pashayee-Khamene F, Heidari Z, Asbaghi O, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20241 author declares ties to industry.
Is creatine bad for the kidneys? Not in the studies so far. A 2025 meta-analysis found a small rise in serum creatinine, a waste product that the kidneys clear, and no significant change in how well the kidneys filter [6]Effect of creatine supplementation on kidney function: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Naeini EK, Eskandari M, Mortazavi M, et al. BMC Nephrol, 2025. A narrative review of controlled trials agrees [7]Is It Time for a Requiem for Creatine Supplementation-Induced Kidney Failure? A Narrative Review. Longobardi I, Gualano B, Seguro AC, et al. Nutrients, 20231 author declares ties to industry. The studies had few people with kidney disease. See Creatine and kidney function: what the evidence says.
Which dose do studies use? A common plan is loading, about 0.3 g per kg of body weight a day for 5 to 7 days, then 3 to 5 g a day. This is the plan the 2017 ISSN position stand and a 2021 review describe. A 2026 review of soccer studies could not show that loading is better than no loading [8]International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 2017Paid for by industry7 authors declare ties to industry[9]Common questions and misconceptions about creatine supplementation: what does the scientific evidence really show?. Antonio J, Candow DG, Forbes SC, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20219 authors declare ties to industry[1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry.
Is creatine monohydrate better than other forms? Monohydrate has the most evidence. A 2022 systematic review found no consistent gain from other forms, and few trials that compared them with monohydrate [10]Efficacy of Alternative Forms of Creatine Supplementation on Improving Performance and Body Composition in Healthy Subjects: A Systematic Review. Fazio C, Elder CL, Harris MM. J Strength Cond Res, 2022.
Article
What it is
Creatine is a compound that the body makes from amino acids. Muscles store it as phosphocreatine, which quickly rebuilds ATP during sprints, jumps and lifts [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry. This is why creatine is studied in sports with many short, intense efforts.
The studies mostly used creatine monohydrate. A few used creatine malate or magnesium creatine chelate [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry.
What the evidence says
Soccer players
A 2026 systematic review looked at 41 controlled studies (45 reports) of creatine in male and female soccer players, from adolescents to professionals [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry. A systematic review collects all studies on one question with a fixed method. The authors did not combine the results into one number, because the studies used very different doses, players and tests. They rated the certainty of the evidence as very low for performance, body composition and recovery, with GRADE, a standard method to rate how much a body of evidence can be trusted [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry.
Repeated sprints, anaerobic power and strength. Some trials reported better results with creatine than with placebo. Many others found no difference between the groups, or a change only inside the creatine group, which does not prove an effect [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry. Example: in 14 female college players, 15 g a day for 1 week and then about 5 g a day for 12 weeks gave larger gains in bench press and squat strength than placebo [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry.
The two reviews disagree on anaerobic power. A 2019 meta-analysis of 9 trials with 168 players found a large benefit on anaerobic tests (standardized mean difference, SMD, 1.23; 95% confidence interval, CI, 0.55 to 1.91), and on the 30-second Wingate cycling test (SMD 2.26; 95% CI 1.40 to 3.11) [2]Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Athletic Performance in Soccer Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Mielgo-Ayuso J, Calleja-Gonzalez J, Marqués-Jiménez D, et al. Nutrients, 2019. The SMD is the size of an effect in units that let different tests be compared, and the CI is the range in which the true value probably lies. The same meta-analysis found no clear benefit on repeated sprints (SMD 0.26; 95% CI -0.13 to 0.65), or on strength, single jumps, single sprints and agility (SMD 0.21; 95% CI -0.03 to 0.45) [2]Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Athletic Performance in Soccer Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Mielgo-Ayuso J, Calleja-Gonzalez J, Marqués-Jiménez D, et al. Nutrients, 2019.
The large Wingate result is weak evidence for soccer, for two reasons:
- It came from only two trials [2 Figure 5]Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Athletic Performance in Soccer Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Mielgo-Ayuso J, Calleja-Gonzalez J, Marqués-Jiménez D, et al. Nutrients, 2019. One of them studied 25 American football players at a US university, not soccer players [3]Creatine supplementation during resistance training in college football athletes. Bemben MG, Bemben DA, Loftiss DD, et al. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 2001. The same trial gave all of the meta-analysis's strength data [2 Figure 4]Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Athletic Performance in Soccer Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Mielgo-Ayuso J, Calleja-Gonzalez J, Marqués-Jiménez D, et al. Nutrients, 2019.
- In the other trial, 19 young male soccer players took 0.03 g of creatine per kg a day for 14 days. Power rose by 8% in the creatine group and by 3% to 4% in the placebo group, but the difference in change between the groups was not significant [11]Effect of low dose, short-term creatine supplementation on muscle power output in elite youth soccer players. Yáñez-Silva A, Buzzachera CF, Piçarro IDC, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 2017.
The 2026 review, with 41 studies, did not include the American football trial, and found the anaerobic results mixed and of very low certainty [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry. The newer and larger review is the stronger evidence.
Jumps and ball skills. Results for jump height, dribbling and kicking were mixed. Kicking accuracy did not improve in the studies that measured it [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry.
Endurance and change of direction. No consistent benefit was found [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry. The 2019 meta-analysis found no effect on aerobic tests (SMD -0.05; 95% CI -0.37 to 0.28) [2]Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Athletic Performance in Soccer Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Mielgo-Ayuso J, Calleja-Gonzalez J, Marqués-Jiménez D, et al. Nutrients, 2019.
Recovery and fatigue. Results for the fatigue index, blood lactate, heart rate and muscle-damage markers were mostly null or did not agree. All five studies that measured how hard the exercise felt found no change [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry.
Body weight and muscle. In 16 of 23 soccer studies that measured body composition, body weight went up in the creatine group, by 0.4 to 3.6 kg where it was reported [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry. Not every study showed a difference against the control group, and evidence for a gain in lean mass was limited [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry. A 2024 meta-analysis of 143 trials in all kinds of people found an average gain of 0.86 kg (95% CI 0.76 to 0.96) [4]Creatine supplementation protocols with or without training interventions on body composition: a GRADE-assessed systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Pashayee-Khamene F, Heidari Z, Asbaghi O, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20241 author declares ties to industry.
Adults in general: body weight, muscle and fat
A 2024 systematic review and meta-analysis pooled 143 randomized trials (172 study arms, 3,655 people) of creatine against placebo. The trials ran from 4 days to 365 days. The authors rated the certainty of the evidence with GRADE [4]Creatine supplementation protocols with or without training interventions on body composition: a GRADE-assessed systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Pashayee-Khamene F, Heidari Z, Asbaghi O, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20241 author declares ties to industry.
| Outcome | Average difference from placebo | Certainty |
|---|---|---|
| Body mass | +0.86 kg (95% CI 0.76 to 0.96) | High |
| Fat-free mass | +0.82 kg (95% CI 0.57 to 1.06) | High |
| Body fat percentage | -0.28 percentage points (95% CI -0.47 to -0.09) | High |
| Fat mass | +0.05 kg (95% CI -0.24 to 0.35), not significant | Moderate |
| Body mass index | +0.20 kg/m2 (95% CI -0.17 to 0.58), not significant | Moderate |
Source: [4 Table 3 and Table 6]Creatine supplementation protocols with or without training interventions on body composition: a GRADE-assessed systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Pashayee-Khamene F, Heidari Z, Asbaghi O, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20241 author declares ties to industry. Fat-free mass was larger with resistance training (0.99 kg) than with no exercise (0.24 kg, not significant), and larger in men (1.20 kg) than in women (0.54 kg). The test for a difference between these groups was not significant [4]Creatine supplementation protocols with or without training interventions on body composition: a GRADE-assessed systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Pashayee-Khamene F, Heidari Z, Asbaghi O, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20241 author declares ties to industry. An earlier meta-analysis of 35 studies also found a gain in lean mass only with resistance training [5]Influence of age, sex, and type of exercise on the efficacy of creatine supplementation on lean body mass: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Delpino FM, Figueiredo LM, Forbes SC, et al. Nutrition, 2022. The authors say some of the gain may be water held in the muscle [4]Creatine supplementation protocols with or without training interventions on body composition: a GRADE-assessed systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Pashayee-Khamene F, Heidari Z, Asbaghi O, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20241 author declares ties to industry.
Other forms of creatine
Most studies use creatine monohydrate. The ISSN position stand says that claims for better uptake or stability of other forms, such as creatine citrate, ethyl ester, buffered forms or nitrate, have no support in clinical evidence [8]International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 2017Paid for by industry7 authors declare ties to industry. A 2022 systematic review found 17 placebo-controlled trials of other forms (magnesium creatine chelate and creatine citrate, malate, ethyl ester, nitrate and pyruvate). Only 3 compared the other form with monohydrate. It found no consistent gain in performance over placebo, and monohydrate was the cheapest form [10]Efficacy of Alternative Forms of Creatine Supplementation on Improving Performance and Body Composition in Healthy Subjects: A Systematic Review. Fazio C, Elder CL, Harris MM. J Strength Cond Res, 2022.
Doses used in studies
| Protocol | Dose | Duration |
|---|---|---|
| Loading, soccer studies | usually 20 g a day, or 0.3 g per kg of body weight a day [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry | 4 to 7 days [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry |
| Longer use, soccer studies | 3 to 10 g a day [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry | 14 days to 28 weeks [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry |
| Short loading, 2019 meta-analysis | 20 g a day in 4 doses (6 trials) or 30 g a day in 3 doses (1 trial) [2 Table 2]Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Athletic Performance in Soccer Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Mielgo-Ayuso J, Calleja-Gonzalez J, Marqués-Jiménez D, et al. Nutrients, 2019 | 6 to 7 days [2 Table 2]Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Athletic Performance in Soccer Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Mielgo-Ayuso J, Calleja-Gonzalez J, Marqués-Jiménez D, et al. Nutrients, 2019 |
| Loading, then maintenance, 2019 meta-analysis | 20 g a day, then 5 g a day [2 Table 2]Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Athletic Performance in Soccer Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Mielgo-Ayuso J, Calleja-Gonzalez J, Marqués-Jiménez D, et al. Nutrients, 2019 | about 1 week, then 5, 6 or 9 weeks [2 Table 2]Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Athletic Performance in Soccer Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Mielgo-Ayuso J, Calleja-Gonzalez J, Marqués-Jiménez D, et al. Nutrients, 2019 |
| Low dose, no loading | 0.03 g per kg of body weight a day [11]Effect of low dose, short-term creatine supplementation on muscle power output in elite youth soccer players. Yáñez-Silva A, Buzzachera CF, Piçarro IDC, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 2017 | 14 days [11]Effect of low dose, short-term creatine supplementation on muscle power output in elite youth soccer players. Yáñez-Silva A, Buzzachera CF, Piçarro IDC, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 2017 |
| Loading, as the 2017 ISSN position stand describes it | about 0.3 g per kg of body weight a day, or 5 g four times a day [8]International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 2017Paid for by industry7 authors declare ties to industry | 5 to 7 days [8]International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 2017Paid for by industry7 authors declare ties to industry |
| Maintenance after loading, 2017 ISSN position stand | 3 to 5 g a day; larger athletes may need up to 10 g a day [8]International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 2017Paid for by industry7 authors declare ties to industry | long term [8]International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 2017Paid for by industry7 authors declare ties to industry |
| Slow start, no loading, 2017 ISSN position stand | 3 g a day [8]International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 2017Paid for by industry7 authors declare ties to industry | 28 days [8]International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 2017Paid for by industry7 authors declare ties to industry |
The International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN) is a sports nutrition society. Its 2017 position stand is an expert opinion and a narrative review, not a systematic review. It says a normal diet with 1 to 2 g of creatine a day leaves muscle stores 60% to 80% full, and that supplements raise muscle creatine by 20% to 40%. It says stores return to baseline in 4 to 6 weeks after you stop, and that they do not fall below baseline [8]International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 2017Paid for by industry7 authors declare ties to industry. A 2021 review by many of the same authors describes the same loading and maintenance plan [9]Common questions and misconceptions about creatine supplementation: what does the scientific evidence really show?. Antonio J, Candow DG, Forbes SC, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20219 authors declare ties to industry.
The 2026 review could not show that one dose, loading or not loading, or one time of day is better than another [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry.
The abstract of the 2019 meta-analysis names "3 mg/kg/day for 14 days" as an effective low dose [2]Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Athletic Performance in Soccer Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Mielgo-Ayuso J, Calleja-Gonzalez J, Marqués-Jiménez D, et al. Nutrients, 2019. Its own tables and the trial behind it give 0.03 g per kg a day, which is 30 mg per kg, 10 times more [2 Table 2]Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Athletic Performance in Soccer Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Mielgo-Ayuso J, Calleja-Gonzalez J, Marqués-Jiménez D, et al. Nutrients, 2019[11]Effect of low dose, short-term creatine supplementation on muscle power output in elite youth soccer players. Yáñez-Silva A, Buzzachera CF, Piçarro IDC, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 2017. Its 9-week maintenance phase comes from the American football trial [3]Creatine supplementation during resistance training in college football athletes. Bemben MG, Bemben DA, Loftiss DD, et al. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 2001.
Across the 143 trials, the dose subgroup of 5 g a day or less (68 effect sizes) and the subgroup above 5 g a day (86) gave similar gains in body mass. The authors did not find that one dose or loading plan was better for fat-free mass [4 Table 3]Creatine supplementation protocols with or without training interventions on body composition: a GRADE-assessed systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Pashayee-Khamene F, Heidari Z, Asbaghi O, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20241 author declares ties to industry.
Safety
The soccer studies did not check side effects in a systematic way [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry. In one 8-week soccer trial, kidney and liver blood markers did not change significantly [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry. Two trials reported a larger rise in creatine kinase, an enzyme that goes up in the blood after muscle strain [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry.
A 2025 meta-analysis of 12 studies in healthy people, athletes, postmenopausal women and adults with type 2 diabetes found that creatine raised serum creatinine a little (mean difference 0.07, 95% CI 0.01 to 0.12). The rise was significant in studies of up to 1 week and of more than 12 weeks, but not in studies of 1 to 12 weeks. The glomerular filtration rate (GFR), the measure of how well the kidneys filter, did not change significantly in 5 studies [6]Effect of creatine supplementation on kidney function: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Naeini EK, Eskandari M, Mortazavi M, et al. BMC Nephrol, 2025. Its authors think the rise comes from the turnover of creatine, not from kidney damage [6]Effect of creatine supplementation on kidney function: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Naeini EK, Eskandari M, Mortazavi M, et al. BMC Nephrol, 2025. A narrative review explains that the body turns about 2% of its creatine into creatinine each day [7]Is It Time for a Requiem for Creatine Supplementation-Induced Kidney Failure? A Narrative Review. Longobardi I, Gualano B, Seguro AC, et al. Nutrients, 20231 author declares ties to industry. Blood tests that use serum creatinine alone can therefore read too high in a creatine user.
The studies were small and short, and few included people with kidney disease. A narrative review advises people with very low kidney function to avoid creatine [7]Is It Time for a Requiem for Creatine Supplementation-Induced Kidney Failure? A Narrative Review. Longobardi I, Gualano B, Seguro AC, et al. Nutrients, 20231 author declares ties to industry. Details: Creatine and kidney function: what the evidence says.
Weight gain is common, and it is not known whether it helps or harms sprinting or endurance [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry.
What a sports nutrition society says. The 2017 ISSN position stand says weight gain is the only side effect that studies report consistently. It says well-controlled studies do not show more muscle injuries, dehydration, muscle cramps or stomach upset with creatine, and that doses of 0.3 to 0.8 g per kg of body weight a day, up to 30 g a day, for up to 5 years caused no clinically significant harm in healthy people or patients [8]International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 2017Paid for by industry7 authors declare ties to industry. A 2021 review by many of the same authors reaches the same view for dehydration and cramps, and calls the evidence in children and adolescents limited but reassuring [9]Common questions and misconceptions about creatine supplementation: what does the scientific evidence really show?. Antonio J, Candow DG, Forbes SC, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20219 authors declare ties to industry. Read these statements with care:
- They are the authors' opinion, written from a narrative review.
- The 2017 paper was paid for by the Council for Responsible Nutrition, a trade group of supplement makers, and several authors work for or advise firms that sell creatine [8]International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 2017Paid for by industry7 authors declare ties to industry.
- The ISSN says label warnings for people under 18 are probably not needed. A narrative review of children's studies is weaker evidence than a controlled safety trial in children [8]International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 2017Paid for by industry7 authors declare ties to industry.
Details: Creatine safety and side effects.
Talk to a doctor before you start a supplement, especially if you take medicines or are pregnant.
Verification
Checked on 2026-11-10. The 2019 meta-analysis, the trial of 19 young soccer players, and the 2024 review were read in full text. The 2017 position stand was read in full text, the 2021 ISSN review for the passages on water, cramps, children and loading, the 2023 narrative review of kidney safety in full text, and the other second sources as abstracts. The 2017 position stand was paid for by a supplement trade group (the Council for Responsible Nutrition), and the 2021 review shares authors with it (J. Antonio, D. G. Candow, R. B. Kreider, T. N. Ziegenfuss), so these two do not check each other. Several authors (D. G. Candow, S. C. Forbes) appear on more than one of these papers, and Candow reports ties to a creatine maker, so the checks are not fully independent.
| Claim | Result | What the check found |
|---|---|---|
| No consistent endurance benefit in soccer players | Verified | A 2019 meta-analysis of 9 trials found no effect on aerobic tests [2]Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Athletic Performance in Soccer Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Mielgo-Ayuso J, Calleja-Gonzalez J, Marqués-Jiménez D, et al. Nutrients, 2019 |
| Sprint, power and strength results are mixed | Partly verified | The 2019 meta-analysis found no clear benefit on repeated sprints, single sprints, jumps and strength, but a large benefit on anaerobic tests [2]Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Athletic Performance in Soccer Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Mielgo-Ayuso J, Calleja-Gonzalez J, Marqués-Jiménez D, et al. Nutrients, 2019. The 2026 review, with more studies, rates anaerobic power mixed [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry |
| 2019 meta-analysis: large benefit on the Wingate test (SMD 2.26) | Contradicted | The result came from two trials [2 Figure 5]Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Athletic Performance in Soccer Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Mielgo-Ayuso J, Calleja-Gonzalez J, Marqués-Jiménez D, et al. Nutrients, 2019. One studied American football players [3]Creatine supplementation during resistance training in college football athletes. Bemben MG, Bemben DA, Loftiss DD, et al. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 2001. In the other, the difference in change between creatine and placebo was not significant for peak power (P = 0.35), mean power (P = 0.49) or total work (P = 0.88) [11]Effect of low dose, short-term creatine supplementation on muscle power output in elite youth soccer players. Yáñez-Silva A, Buzzachera CF, Piçarro IDC, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 2017 |
| 2019 meta-analysis: effective low dose of 3 mg per kg a day for 14 days | Contradicted | The trial used 0.03 g (30 mg) per kg a day [11]Effect of low dose, short-term creatine supplementation on muscle power output in elite youth soccer players. Yáñez-Silva A, Buzzachera CF, Piçarro IDC, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 2017, as the meta-analysis's own Table 2 says [2 Table 2]Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Athletic Performance in Soccer Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Mielgo-Ayuso J, Calleja-Gonzalez J, Marqués-Jiménez D, et al. Nutrients, 2019 |
| Body weight often goes up | Partly verified | +0.86 kg across 143 trials [4]Creatine supplementation protocols with or without training interventions on body composition: a GRADE-assessed systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Pashayee-Khamene F, Heidari Z, Asbaghi O, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20241 author declares ties to industry. Not independent: four authors wrote both reviews. The 2017 position stand of a sports nutrition society also lists weight gain as the only consistent side effect [8]International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 2017Paid for by industry7 authors declare ties to industry |
| Adults: fat-free mass rises by about 0.8 kg | Partly verified | An earlier meta-analysis of 35 studies found +0.68 kg overall [5]Influence of age, sex, and type of exercise on the efficacy of creatine supplementation on lean body mass: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Delpino FM, Figueiredo LM, Forbes SC, et al. Nutrition, 2022. Not fully independent: two authors, D. G. Candow and S. C. Forbes, wrote both reviews |
| Fat-free mass rises with resistance training, not without exercise | Partly verified | +1.10 kg with resistance training and +0.03 kg (not significant) without exercise [5]Influence of age, sex, and type of exercise on the efficacy of creatine supplementation on lean body mass: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Delpino FM, Figueiredo LM, Forbes SC, et al. Nutrition, 2022. Not fully independent: D. G. Candow and S. C. Forbes wrote both reviews. The 2024 review gives +0.99 kg and +0.24 kg (not significant), but its own test for a difference between exercise groups was not significant (P = 0.143) [4 Table 3]Creatine supplementation protocols with or without training interventions on body composition: a GRADE-assessed systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Pashayee-Khamene F, Heidari Z, Asbaghi O, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20241 author declares ties to industry |
| Men gain more fat-free mass than women | Partly verified | Same direction in both reviews: 1.20 kg and 0.54 kg [4 Table 3]Creatine supplementation protocols with or without training interventions on body composition: a GRADE-assessed systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Pashayee-Khamene F, Heidari Z, Asbaghi O, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20241 author declares ties to industry, 1.46 kg and 0.29 kg [5]Influence of age, sex, and type of exercise on the efficacy of creatine supplementation on lean body mass: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Delpino FM, Figueiredo LM, Forbes SC, et al. Nutrition, 2022. The 2024 test for a difference was not significant (P = 0.120), so this is a trend |
| Body fat percentage falls very little, and fat mass does not change | Partly verified | In adults under 50 who lifted weights, creatine lowered body fat percentage by 1.19% and absolute fat mass did not change [12]Resistance Exercise and Creatine Supplementation on Fat Mass in Adults < 50 Years of Age: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Candow DG, Prokopidis K, Forbes SC, et al. Nutrients, 20234 authors declare ties to industry. Not fully independent: same two authors as the 2024 review |
| Part of the gain is water | Partly verified | The position stand reports 0.5 to 1.0 L of extra body water during loading, in step with the weight gain [8]International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 2017Paid for by industry7 authors declare ties to industry. No trial in the 2024 review measured water for the long-term gain, so for long use this is not verified |
| High-certainty (GRADE) evidence for body weight, fat-free mass and body fat percentage | Opinion | This is the rating of the 2024 authors. The rating treats the 0.28-point fall in body fat percentage as high certainty; its size is very small [4 Table 6]Creatine supplementation protocols with or without training interventions on body composition: a GRADE-assessed systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Pashayee-Khamene F, Heidari Z, Asbaghi O, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20241 author declares ties to industry |
| Loading doses of about 20 g a day for a few days | Verified | 20 to 30 g a day for 6 to 7 days in the 2019 meta-analysis [2]Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Athletic Performance in Soccer Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Mielgo-Ayuso J, Calleja-Gonzalez J, Marqués-Jiménez D, et al. Nutrients, 2019 |
| Kidney function (GFR) did not change | Verified | No significant change in GFR in a 2025 meta-analysis [6]Effect of creatine supplementation on kidney function: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Naeini EK, Eskandari M, Mortazavi M, et al. BMC Nephrol, 2025. A narrative review of controlled trials [7]Is It Time for a Requiem for Creatine Supplementation-Induced Kidney Failure? A Narrative Review. Longobardi I, Gualano B, Seguro AC, et al. Nutrients, 20231 author declares ties to industry and the 2017 position stand [8]International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 2017Paid for by industry7 authors declare ties to industry also found no harm to the kidneys. Not fully independent: the narrative review's authors ran two of the trials in the meta-analysis. Liver markers: not verified |
| Loading about 0.3 g per kg a day for 5 to 7 days, then 3 to 5 g a day | Partly verified | The 2021 review gives the same plan [9]Common questions and misconceptions about creatine supplementation: what does the scientific evidence really show?. Antonio J, Candow DG, Forbes SC, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20219 authors declare ties to industry, but it shares authors with the position stand. The 2019 meta-analysis used 20 to 30 g a day for 6 to 7 days [2]Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Athletic Performance in Soccer Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Mielgo-Ayuso J, Calleja-Gonzalez J, Marqués-Jiménez D, et al. Nutrients, 2019. The 2026 review found no proof that loading beats no loading [1]Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20264 authors declare ties to industry |
| Other forms of creatine are not better than monohydrate | Verified | A 2022 systematic review of 17 trials found no consistent gain over placebo, and only 3 trials compared a form with monohydrate [10]Efficacy of Alternative Forms of Creatine Supplementation on Improving Performance and Body Composition in Healthy Subjects: A Systematic Review. Fazio C, Elder CL, Harris MM. J Strength Cond Res, 2022. It is independent of the position stand authors |
| No more dehydration or cramps with creatine | Partly verified | The 2021 review reaches the same view [9]Common questions and misconceptions about creatine supplementation: what does the scientific evidence really show?. Antonio J, Candow DG, Forbes SC, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20219 authors declare ties to industry, but it shares authors with the position stand. No independent source was read |
| No harm up to 30 g a day for 5 years in healthy people and patients | Not verified | No second source of another kind reported such long, high-dose use. The kidney meta-analysis covers shorter studies [6]Effect of creatine supplementation on kidney function: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Naeini EK, Eskandari M, Mortazavi M, et al. BMC Nephrol, 2025 |
| Creatine is safe in children and adolescents | Not verified | The 2021 review calls the evidence limited [9]Common questions and misconceptions about creatine supplementation: what does the scientific evidence really show?. Antonio J, Candow DG, Forbes SC, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 20219 authors declare ties to industry. A 2026 systematic review of 5 studies in adolescents, in a journal that MEDLINE does not index, is not cited |
| Creatine is safe for people with kidney disease | Not verified | The 2025 meta-analysis had almost no such people [6]Effect of creatine supplementation on kidney function: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Naeini EK, Eskandari M, Mortazavi M, et al. BMC Nephrol, 2025. A narrative review calls the evidence very limited [7]Is It Time for a Requiem for Creatine Supplementation-Induced Kidney Failure? A Narrative Review. Longobardi I, Gualano B, Seguro AC, et al. Nutrients, 20231 author declares ties to industry |
See also
Sources
Creatine supplementation in soccer players: a systematic review. Ashtary-Larky D, Candow DG, Antonio J, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 2026
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- Meta-analysis · About this source
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